The Dictionary and Its Uses
Whatever your level or course of study/aspect of human undertaking, the dictionary is a useful resource we all need. Not only does it tell us how a word is spelt, it tells us how it is used, pronounced, what word(s) it collocates with and so on. Since the dictionary is second to none in the lives of students and language learners particularly and people generally, it is important we know, not only how to use it but to use it well. Knowing how to use it well necessitates the need to teach ourselves how to use the dictionary effectively.
There are several reasons why we should teach dictionary skills.
- It will give students greater control over their own learning, and shift the responsibility of learning to the student.
- We are not born knowing how to use dictionaries well, thus students need to gain the knowledge and skills to get what they can from the dictionary effectively.
- It helps students to disentangle information in the dictionary by making things explicit to them.
- Dictionaries naturally generate a great deal of thinking about meaning and language.
- If they can use dictionaries well, there will be minimal classroom disruption because teachers can rely on students to get the correct meaning.
- Dictionaries can provide useful support not simply when teachers are in doubt about something but when they want students to confirm their own suppositions about something in English.
- Dictionaries can serve as a focus for communication and classroom interaction.
- Dictionary training can help students explore personal preferences and learning styles and may also lead students to new modes of study.
Dictionaries are not only a tool for private or individual learning problems, but they can also become a springboard to all sorts of other communicative and interactive activities. By exploiting dictionaries as a source of interaction, we can help students develop their confidence as dictionary users and as language learners. An important benefit of this is that students will be exposed to a great deal of language that will help them experience and explore it (How to get your students to use their dictionaries effectively, n.d.).
A dictionary is “a book in which the words and phrases of a language are listed alphabetically, together with their meanings or their translations in another language” (Collins COBUILD Advanced Learner’s English Dictionary, 2006). This definition looks at the dictionary from the perspective of language.
From another perspective, it is seen as:
a reference source in print or electronic form containing words usually alphabetically arranged along with information about their forms, pronunciations, functions, etymologies, meanings, and syntactical and idiomatic uses 2 : a reference book listing alphabetically terms or names important to a particular subject or activity along with discussion of their meanings and applications (Merriam-Webster's 11th Collegiate Dictionary, 2003).
This definition takes it higher than the first one by Collins (2006) as it tells us the characteristic of it being in a book or electronic form. They both agree on a point, that the items in the dictionary are listed alphabetically. Merriam-Webster's (2003) goes on to talk about what the dictionary contains or tells the user: the forms, pronunciations, functions, etymologies, meanings, and syntactical and idiomatic uses among others.
The Wikipedia (2011) further throws more light on the definition as it explains:
A dictionary, also referred to as a lexicon, wordbook, or vocabulary, is a collection of words in one or more specific languages, often listed alphabetically, with usage information, definitions, etymologies, phonetics, pronunciations, and other information; [1] or a book of words in one language with their equivalents in another, also known as a lexicon. ... a dictionary may be regarded as a lexicographical product that is characterised by three significant features: (1) it has been prepared for one or more functions; (2) it contains data that have been selected for the purpose of fulfilling those functions; and (3) its lexicographic structures link and establish relationships between the data so that they can meet the needs of users and fulfil the functions of the dictionary.
The Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (2006) puts the definition of the dictionary as:
a book that gives a list of the words of a language in alphabetical order and explains what they mean, or give a word for them in a foreign language: a Spanish – English dictionary 2 a book that explains the words that are used in a particular subject: a dictionary of mathematics 3 a list of words in electronic form stored in a computer’s SPELLCHECKER.
This definition combines the qualities of the first two earlier ones (Collins (2006) and Merriam-Webster’s (2003) as it adds to them that it could be from one language to another (a Spanish – English dictionary) or it could be on a different subject not necessarily English. Our focus here is on the English so we shall dwell on the dictionary in relation to English language.
We shall look at how the English dictionary came about. The history of the English dictionary cannot be complete without giving credit to Dominican monk, Galfridus Grammaticus, also known as Geoffrey the Grammarian’s work Storehouse for Children or Clerics printed in 1449. The work “has a good claim to be the first English dictionary. It contains Latin equivalents for 10,000 English words and remained a leading wordbook for several generations” and Samuel Johnson (1709-1784), English writer and lexicographer. Johnson was commissioned by a group of booksellers in 1747 to compile a dictionary as there was a dictionary in French and Spanish before then. “After more than eight years in preparation, the Dictionary of the English Language appeared in 1755. This remarkable work contains about 40,000 entries elucidated by vivid, idiosyncratic, still-quoted definitions and by an extraordinary range of illustrative examples” (Microsoft Encarta, 2009). These efforts have however been improved upon since then as advancements in technology has greatly aided the compilation and publication of different types of dictionaries in English since then.
Types of Dictionaries
There are different types of dictionaries as they perform different ranges of functions.
Dictionaries can be classified into different types on the basis of several criteria, varying from the nature of the lexical entry to the prospective user of the dictionary. Below are presented some main criteria for the classification of dictionaries.
1) Density of entries: whether the word list is general or restricted and special? Does it also cover regional and social dialects, jargons and slangs and archaisms?
2) The number of languages involved: monolingual, bilingual, multilingual etc.
3) The nature of entries: whether lexical only or also encyclopaedic, the degree of concentration on strictly lexical data.
4) Axis of time: whether diachronic (dynamic) or synchronic (static).
5) Arrangement of entries: alphabetical or semantic or causal.
6) Purpose: whether normative or referential.
7) The prospective user: whether meant for the general reader to find out general linguistic information or for special users to know some special aspects of the lexical unit say etymology etc.? Is it meant for the general language or only for the language of literature, there too, the language of some author, here again the language of some of his works? (il-ebooks.net/html/lexico/link5.htm).
The types of dictionary include:
- Monolingual (English-English) dictionaries: these types of dictionaries are written in two languages to enable users (learners) understand the meaning of the words they want to know in both languages. For example, English – Yoruba dictionary or Yoruba – Ilaje dictionary!
- Learner Dictionaries: Learner Dictionaries are English-English dictionaries that have been written for foreign language learners. There are dictionaries at different difficulty levels, from Elementary dictionaries with simple definitions and a small word list, such as the Oxford Wordpower dictionary, to near native-speaker level dictionaries such as The Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (OALD). Learner Dictionaries differ from native-speaker dictionaries because they are written by language specialists for language students who are in the process of learning the language. However, there are several types of Learner Dictionary …
Good Learner Dictionaries have many features beyond the spelling, pronunciation and meaning. They will also have information such as style notes regarding cultural connotations, and whether the word is formal or dated. These dictionaries also often try to disambiguate similar words such as borrow, and lend. Most Learner Dictionaries also have vocabulary building advice and some study notes on how to use the dictionary well. All this is in addition to the grammar and dialectal notes one usually finds in dictionaries.
- Picture Dictionaries: are part of the learner dictionary the difference been the items in the here are in pictures this is done to make the learners see and understand better before the grasp the words in the language. They would at least se the pictures of what they want to know and this gives them a rest of mind as they have not mastered the new language well for them to do without the pictures.
- Multimedia dictionaries: these are the normal dictionaries but they are not only presented in book form but come in the form of CD that are used or installed to the computer. Most dictionaries now come with the CD-ROM if installed and the user is connected to the internet gives the user (most time with an access code supplied with the book) chance to visit the site of the publishers of the dictionary and see additions or modifications that have been made to the dictionary since publication.
- Production dictionaries: Most teachers and students are not aware of this type of dictionary because they work differently from other dictionaries. Production dictionaries put words of the same topic, or words with nearly the same meaning, in the same place so that they can be compared. An advantage of this type of dictionary is that the student can find new words easily. In a normal mono-lingual dictionary, students look up the meanings of words they already know. Look at the example from Wordfinder . In this example we can see that several words with a similar meaning to borrow are listed together (http://www1.harenet.ne.jp/~waring/vocab/dictionary/dictionary.htm).
The function(s) of a dictionary
The functions or uses of the dictionary include that:
· it shows or teaches you how a word is spelt. Since it is listed in alphabetical order, it is easier for you to pick up one and go through the list till you get to the word in particular you want. You see words as they are listed in alphabetical other and this helps in getting the particular one you want. If for example you don’t know the spelling of the word “coup”. All you need do is to go through the words listed under "C” and take them one after the other till you arrive at coup.
· it is used to learn the meaning of a word. Having got the spelling of the word, the dictionary tells you how the meaning of the word. This is the basic function of the dictionary that most people know. You can get the meaning of any word at all in the dictionary.
· The dictionary indicates the shades of meaning that a word or expression in a language has. By shade of meaning we mean the senses in which a word may be used and how it could be used. For example a look at the word table from the Merriam-Webster's 11th collegiate dictionary (2003), shows the following:
2 a plural : BACKGAMMON b : one of the two leaves of a backgammon board or either half of a leaf
3 a : a piece of furniture consisting of a smooth flat slab fixed on legs b (1) : a supply or source of food (2) : an act or instance of assembling to eat : MEAL
4 : STRINGCOURSE 5 a : a systematic arrangement of data usually in rows and columns for ready reference b : a condensed enumeration : LIST 6 : something that resembles a table especially in having a plane surface: as a : the upper flat surface of a cut precious stone — see BRILLIANT illustration b (1) : TABLELAND (2) : a horizontal stratum –on the table : up for consideration or negotiation
1 : into a stupor
2 : in a covert manner
· Different meanings that the word has, as well as synonyms (same meaning) and antonyms (opposite meaning) (The University of Alabama Center for Teaching and Learning (n.d.).). For example the word come turns out with the following:
The form come is used in the present tense and is the past participle. Come is used in a large number of expressions which are explained under other words in this dictionary. For example, the expression `to come to terms with something' is explained at `term'.
1 VERB V prep/adv, V prep/adv, V prep/adv, V, V, V -ing prep/adv
When a person or thing comes to a particular place, especially to a place where you are, they move there.
Two police officers came into the hall...
Come here, Tom...
You'll have to come with us...
We heard the train coming...
Can I come too?...
The impact blew out some of the windows and the sea came rushing in.
2 VERB V to-inf, V and v, V inf
When someone comes to do something, they move to the place where someone else is in order to do it, and they do it. In British English, someone can also come and do something and in American English, someone can come do something. However, you always say that someone came and did something.
Eleanor had come to visit her...
Come and meet Roger...
I want you to come visit me.
3 VERB V to n
When you come to a place, you reach it.
He came to a door that led into a passageway.
4 VERB V up/down prep, V up/down prep
If something comes up to a particular point or down to it, it is tall enough, deep enough, or long enough to reach that point.
The water came up to my chest...
I wore a large shirt of Jamie's which came down over my hips.
5 VERB V adv/prep, V adv/prep
If something comes apart or comes to pieces, it breaks into pieces. If something comes off or comes away, it becomes detached from something else.
The pistol came to pieces, easily and quickly...
The door knobs came off in our hands.
6 V-LINK V to n, V into n, V adj
You use come in expressions such as come to an end or come into operation to indicate that someone or something enters or reaches a particular state or situation.
The Communists came to power in 1944...
I came into contact with very bright Harvard and Yale students...
Their worst fears may be coming true.
7 VERB V to-inf
If someone comes to do something, they do it at the end of a long process or period of time.
She said it so many times that she came to believe it...
8 VERB V to-inf
You can ask how something came to happen when you want to know what caused it to happen or made it possible.
How did you come to meet him?
9 VERB V prep/adv, V, there V n
When a particular event or time comes, it arrives or happens.
The announcement came after a meeting at the Home Office...
The time has come for us to move on...
There will come a time when the crisis will occur.
· com|ing N-SING usu the N of n
Most of my patients welcome the coming of summer.
10 PREP
You can use come before a date, time, or event to mean when that date, time, or event arrives. For example, you can say come the spring to mean `when the spring arrives'.
Come the election on the 20th of May, we will have to decide...
11 VERB V to n, it V to n that
If a thought, idea, or memory comes to you, you suddenly think of it or remember it.
He was about to shut the door when an idea came to him...
Then it came to me that perhaps he did understand. = occur
12 VERB V to n
If money or property is going to come to you, you are going to inherit or receive it.
He did have pension money coming to him when the factory shut down.
13 VERB V before n, V to n
If a case comes before a court or tribunal or comes to court, it is presented there so that the court or tribunal can examine it.
The membership application came before the Council of Ministers in September...
President Cristiani expected the case to come to court within ninety days.
14 VERB V to amount
If something comes to a particular number or amount, it adds up to it.
Lunch came to $80.
15 VERB V from n, V from n, V from n
If someone or something comes from a particular place or thing, that place or thing is their origin, source, or starting point.
Nearly half the students come from abroad...
Chocolate comes from the cacao tree...
The term `claret', used to describe Bordeaux wines, may come from the French word `clairet'.
16 VERB V from n/-ing, V of n/-ing
Something that comes from something else or comes of it is the result of it.
There is a feeling of power that comes from driving fast...
He asked to be transferred there some years ago, but nothing came of it.
17 VERB V ord, V ord
If someone or something comes first, next, or last, they are first, next, or last in a series, list, or competition.
The two countries have been unable to agree which step should come next...
The horse had already won at Lincolnshire and come second at Lowesby.
18 VERB V in n, V in n
If a type of thing comes in a particular range of colours, forms, styles, or sizes, it can have any of those colours, forms, styles, or sizes.
Bikes come in all shapes and sizes...
The wallpaper comes in black and white only.
19 VERB V as n to n, V as n
You use come in expressions such as it came as a surprise when indicating a person's reaction to something that happens.
Major's reply came as a complete surprise to the House of Commons...
The arrest has come as a terrible shock.
20 VERB V to n, V to n
The next subject in a discussion that you come to is the one that you talk about next.
Finally in the programme, we come to the news that the American composer and conductor, Leonard Bernstein, has died...
That is another matter altogether. And we shall come to that next.
21 VERB V
To come means to have an orgasm. (INFORMAL)
22 see also coming, comings and goings
23 PHRASE emphasis
If you say that someone is, for example, as good as they come, or as stupid as they come, you are emphasizing that they are extremely good or extremely stupid.
The new finance minister was educated at Oxford and is as traditional as they come.
24 PHRASE PHR with cl emphasis
You can use the expression when it comes down to it or when you come down to it for emphasis, when you are giving a general statement or conclusion.
When you come down to it, however, the basic problems of life have not changed...
25 PHRASE V inflects
If you say that someone has it coming to them, you mean that they deserve everything bad that is going to happen to them, because they have done something wrong or are a bad person. If you say that someone got what was coming to them, you mean that they deserved the punishment or bad experience that they have had. (INFORMAL)
He was pleased that Brady was dead because he probably had it coming to him.
26 PHRASE PHR with cl
You use the expression come to think of it to indicate that you have suddenly realized something, often something obvious.
You know, when you come to think of it, this is very odd.
27 PHRASE usu n PHR, also v-link PHR
When you refer to a time or an event to come or one that is still to come, you are referring to a future time or event.
I hope in years to come he will reflect on his decision...
The worst of the storm is yet to come.
28 PHRASE PHR n/-ing
You can use the expression when it comes to or when it comes down to in order to introduce a new topic or a new aspect of a topic that you are talking about.
Most of us know we should cut down on fat. But knowing such things isn't much help when it comes to shopping and eating...
However, when it comes down to somebody that they know, they have a different feeling.
29 PHRASE V inflects
You can use expressions like I know where you're coming from or you can see where she's coming from to say that you understand someone's attitude or point of view.
To understand why they are doing it, it is necessary to know where they are coming from... (Collins COBUILD Advanced Learner’s English Dictionary, 2006).
· The dictionary helps you check the part of speech of a word. In most dictionaries the parts of speech are abbreviated but the meanings of the abbreviations are explained in the dictionaries. For example, the noun is abbreviated as (n) to know the sub classification of countable and uncountable they are indicated as (c for countable or count nouns u for uncountable or non count nouns) d, the verb is indicated as (v) while further sub classification of whether transitive or intransitive will be (vn or vt for transitive verbs and vti for intransitive verbs etc), adjectives are indicated as adj, adverbs as adv, pronouns as pron, determiners as det, prepositions as prep and so on.
· It helps you identify the classifications of words (classification into groups). The dictionary tells you the divisions associated words in the sense that it sub-classifies the types and how to use them. Most dictionaries have entries in them to identify words and the grammatical categories they belong to and they state this at the beginning of the dictionaries with special notations to indicate this. These notations are explained to users at the beginning. For example, Collins (2006) makes this explanation for the user (s):
For each use of each word in this dictionary, there is grammatical information in the Extra Column. For a very few words, such as abbreviations, contractions and some words of foreign origin, no grammar is given, because the words do not belong to any word class, or are used so freely that every example could be given a different word class, e.g. AD, ditto, mpg, must’ve.
The grammar information that is given is of three types:
1. the word class of the word: e.g. VERB, N-COUNT, ADJ, QUANT
2. restrictions or extensions to its behavior, compared to other words of that word class: e.g. usu passive, usu sing, also no det
3. the patterns that the word most frequently occurs in e.g. V n, N of n, ADJ that, ADV with v
For all word class except verbs, the patterns are given immediately after the word class and any restriction or extension. For verbs, the patterns are given next to the examples and in the same order as the examples, so that they are easier to see and understand.
· Different meanings that the word has, as well as synonyms (same meaning) and antonyms (opposite meaning) (The University of Alabama Center for Teaching and Learning (n.d.).). For example, the word boy is entered as:
o boy/bɔɩ/noun, exclamation
- [c] a male child or a young male person: a little/small/young boy.
… (Oxford Advanced learner’s Dictionary, 2006).
On the other hand, Collins (2006) states it as:
- A boy is a child who will grow up to be a man.
I knew him when he was a little boy...
He was still just a boy.
- N-COUNT
You can refer to a young man as a boy, especially when talking about relationships between boys and girls. ...the age when girls get interested in boys.
- N-COUNT usu poss N
Someone's boy is their son. (INFORMAL)
Eric was my cousin Edward's boy...
I have two boys.
- N-COUNT with supp feelings
You can refer to a man as a boy, especially when you are talking about him in an affectionate way. (INFORMAL) ...the local boy who made President...
`Come on boys', he shouted to the sailors. = lad
- see also backroom boy, blue-eyed boy, bully-boy, head boy, messenger boy, office boy, old boy, stable boy, Teddy boy
- EXCLAM feelings
Some people say `boy' or `oh boy' in order to express feelings of excitement or admiration. (mainly AM INFORMAL) Oh Boy! Just think what I could tell him.
· It tells you the pronunciation of words through the transcription. For example drive is given as /draIv/ in the Oxford (2006). There is always a problem with this particular for ESL students as they are not too familiar with the transcription rule.
Electronic dictionaries are the best choice for ESL students. Most of them contain native-language equivalents and explanations, as well as definitions and example sentences in English. They can speak the English word to you, and they are easy to carry around. However, they are expensive and easy to lose, … (Shoebottom, 2011)
Other uses of the dictionary include:
· How to spell the word and its special plural form
· Whether or not the word is capitalized or abbreviated
· How to break the word into syllables
· A sentence or expression with the word used correctly
· The meanings of important prefixes and suffixes
· The special uses of the word
· The history of the word
· Other words derived from the main word (The University of Alabama Center for Teaching and Learning (n.d.).
Most dictionaries are divided into sections and the sections talk about different things the user need to know. The University of Alabama Center for Teaching and Learning (n.d.). lists some of the sections as:
- Foreign words and phrases
- Abbreviations
- Addresses of colleges or government offices
- The population of cities and countries
How NOT to Use the Dictionary
Though the dictionary is meant to help language learners with learning and mastering the language they are learning, it is important to state if you keep checking every new word you encounter you are not likely to make progress with learning the language as you are expected.
Try to follow the advice below and you will become a much more efficient language learner:
o When you find a new word while reading, finish the sentence (better: the paragraph). If you haven’t guessed the meaning and it still seems important, then you can look it up. To avoid interrupting your reading for too long, you should find its meaning in your own language using a bilingual dictionary.
o When you hear a new word in class (or the teacher has written it on the board), wait and continue listening. What the teacher says next may help you to understand the word. If you look in your dictionary, you will not hear what comes next, and this will make understanding the lesson more and more difficult.
If you think the word is very important, you could copy it from the board or write how you think it is spelled. Then later you could ask the teacher or another student what it means (http://www1.harenet.ne.jp/~waring/vocab/dictionary/dictionary.htm.).
Dictionary References
Mahoney, J. L. (2009). "Samuel Johnson." Microsoft Encarta 2009 [DVD]. Redmond, WA: Microsoft Corporation.
Dictionary: The Wikipedia (2011). Retrieved 24 May, 2011 from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dictionary.
Merriam-Webster's 11th Collegiate Dictionary (2003). Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster Incorporated.
Collins COBUILD Advanced Learner’s English Dictionary (5th ed.) (2006). Glasgow: HarperCollins Publishers.
Oxford advanced learner’s dictionary (2006). New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Shoebottom, P. (2011). How to use a dictionary effectively. Retrieved 24 May, 2011 from: http://esl.fis.edu/learners/advice/dic.htm
The University of Alabama Center for Teaching and Learning (n.d.). How to use a dictionary. Retrieved 24 May, 2011 from: http://www.ctl.ua.edu/CTLStudyAids/StudySkillsFlyers/VocabularyDevelopment/how2useadictionary.htm.
How to get your students to use their dictionaries effectively (n.d.). Retrieved 24 May, 2011 from: http://www1.harenet.ne.jp/~waring/vocab/dictionary/dictionary.htm.
Malkiel (1967). In Introduction to Lexicography: Types of Dictionaries (n.d.). Retrieved 24 May, 2011 from: il-ebooks.net/html/lexico/link5.htm.
Introduction to lexicography: Types of Dictionaries (n.d.). Retrieved 24 May, 2011 from: il-ebooks.net/html/lexico/link5.htm.
